SECURITY TERMS
3 Types of Steganography
Injection, Substitution, Generate new file
802.11a
54 Mbps at 5ghz
802.11b
11 Mbps at 2.4ghz
802.11g
54 Mbps at 2.4ghz
Acoustical-seismic Detection systems
physical intruder detection, microphone-type device detects sounds that exceed the ambient noise level of the protected area (glass break alarm for example)
active-active design
cluster of redundant systems, both systems actively processing tasks, if one fails the other will take over all processing
active-passive design
cluster of redundant systems, but secondary systems only process tasks if the primary system fails
Adaptive-chosen plaintext attack
Allows the cryptanalyst to choose the initial plaintext that gets encrypted, and then choose the additional blocks of text that get encrypted for further analysis based on each encryption step
Address
Each byte in memory is assigned a unique address that distinguishes it from the other bytes
Administrative Law
grievance against the government
AES
Advanced Encryption Standard, block size 128, key sizes 128, 192 and 256. Rijndael (raindoll) won the contest.
AES
cannot be used as a secure channel for symmetric key exchange
AH
Authentication header, protocol used in IPSec for integrity, authentication, non-repudiation
Application Layer
Interface to the user
Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
part of the CPU, manages data transfer operations, arithmetic operations, data editing, and decision making
Assymetric Encryption
Public key, PKI, dual or two-way encryption, Slower
Assymetric Encryption Types
RSA, El Gamal, ECC, Merkle-Hellman Knapsack, Chor Rivest Knapsack, LUC
Asymmetric
addresses problems with symmetric. Scales easily, each user only has 1 pair of keys, public key can be distributed w/o protections. Provides authenticity and non-repudiation. However, slower
Asymmetrical Multiprocessing Systems (AMP)
one processor takes care of system processes and the other processor(s) will run applications
ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
Attack
Attempt to gain unauthorized access to an IS's services, resources, or information, or the attempt to compromise an IS's integrity, availability, or confidentiality
Availability
Destruction
Battista Cipher Disk
lil orphan annie secret decoder ring, two concentric disks
A BCP is long-term focused, while a DR is short-term focused.
TRUE
Bell-LaPadula
security model, confidentiality based, used by the military, no read up (NRU), no write down (* property)(NRD)
Biba
security model, integrity based, no read down, no write up (integrity * property)
Birthday attacks
are hash collisions
Block and Stream
two types of symmetric ciphers
Block cipher
organizes plaintext into blocks of "n" characters/bits and applying the identical encryption algorithm/key to each block (in rounds). Best used in software implementations
Blowfish
Symmetrical encryption, considered unbreakable in cissp world, schneier
Book or Running Key cipher
uses text from a source to encrypt plain text. key is page & line number of book text
Bridges
Layer 2
Broadcast
1 to all (hub)
Business Software Alliance (BSA)
provides enforcement efforts for companies copyrighted material, trademarks, trade secrets, etc
Caesar Cipher
substitution, mono-alphabetic, ROT-3, aka c3 substitution cipher, symmetric
Category 1
Voice, tandard telephone wiring
Category 2
Voice, < 4 mbps, ,EIA/TIA-586 standard
Category 3
Data, 10 mbps, used in 10base t networks
Category 4
Data, 16 mbps, used in token ring networks
Category 5
Data, 100 mbps, used to be the standard in LANs
Category 5e / 6
Data, 1000 mbps, current standard
CBC
Cipher Block Chaining, operates with plaintext 64 bit blocks, randomly generated initialization vector (i.v.) is xored with the first block of plaintext, results encrypted with DES key
CC EAL 1
Functionally tested
CC EAL 2
Structurally tested
CC EAL 3
Methodically tested and checked
CC EAL 4
Methodically designed tested and checked
CC EAL 5
Semi-formally designed and tested
CC EAL 6
Semi-formally verified, designed and tested
CFB
Cipher feedback mode, doesn't use an initialization vector (i.v.) so first blocks are predictable, ciphertext is used as feedback into the key generation source to develop the next key stream
Chaining
Feeds results from previous block into next block's key
Chain of Custody
document (Who, what, where, when), collect, attestation (sign) and seal
Chain of Evidence
What happened from the time evidence was gathered until the present day
CHAP
Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol
Chinese Wall
security model, proposed by Brewer & Nash, disallows any info flow that could lead to a conflict of interest (COI)
Chosen ciphertext attacks are mainly used against
Public Key ciphers
CIDR
Classless Inter-Domain Routing, solution for network congestion and aid conservation of IPv4 ip's
Civil Law
aka Tort Law, purpose is financial restitution
Clark-Wilson
security model, used in commercial applications, separation of duties, programs serve as an intermediary between subjects and objects
Class I Gate
residential gate
Class II Gate
commercial gate, garage
Class III Gate
industrial gate, loading dock, factory
Class IV Gate
restricted access, prison, airport
Clipper chip
Implemented in tamper proof hardware, Skipjack secret key algorithm performs the encryption
CMM Level 1
Initial, SW process adhoc or chaotic, few processes defined (Least mature)
CMM Level 2
Repeatable, basic proj mgmt established
CMM Level 3
Defined, SW process is documented standardized & integrated. All projects are following standards
CMM Level 4
Managed, detailed measures of SW process and quality are collected, process is controlled and understood
CMM Level 5
Optimizing, continous process improvement is enabled by feedback and piloting innovative ideas. (Most mature)
COCOM
1991, coordinating committee for multilateral export controls, prevent crypto from being exported to dangerous countries
Collusion
when more than one person controlling a component portion collaborates with others to breach the security of a system
Common Criteria
International 2nd attempt at ITSEC, Evaluation Assurance level (EAL) assigned to products not systems
Compiler
translates a high level program into machine language
Complex-Instruction-Set-Computer (CISC)
Performs many operations per instruction, easier for programmers
Computer evidence
Constitutes hearsay (secondhand) and is not considered admissible. Admissibility is based on veracity and competence of source
Computers roles in computer crime
object of a crime (target of an attack), subject of a crime (impersonating a network node), medium of a crime (trojan horse)
Confidentiality
Disclosure
Confusion (in algorithms)
prevents intruders from finding patterns in substitution
Control unit
part of the CPU, Coordinates system activities during execution of code
Copyright
form of expression, recorded thought on paper, vinyl, plastic, media, owner has right to reproduce
CPU contains
arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), control unit, primary storage memory unit
Criminal Law
victim is society, purpose of prosecution is punishment
Cryptanalysis
the act of obtaining the plaintext or the key from cipher text
CSMA/CA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
CTR
Counter Mode, 64 bit random number, different counter for each block of text (incremented by 1), used by ATM and IPSEC
Cybersquatting
registering, selling or using a domain name with the intent of profiting from the goodwill of someone else's trademark.
Database Shadowing
similar to remote journaling (xmits data in (near) real-time to a backup storage at a remote location) but stores duplicate data on multiple remote storage devices
Data Center Humidity Ranges
40-60% humidity most suitable. High humidity = corrosion, low humidity = static
Data Center Temperature Ranges
70-74F / 21-23C optimal for system reliability and operator comfort
Data Link Layer
sets up communications between devices, MAC address layer
DBMS
database management systems
DDL
data definition language, defines database schema
Deluge Fire Suppression System
large amount of water, not recommended for use around computers
Demonstrative Evidence
Used to aid the jury (models, illustrations, charts)
DES
Data Encryption Standard, symmetric, aka DEA, 64 bit block cipher, 56 bit key size, no longer considered secure
Detective Fire Controls
smoke detectors, heat sensors, flame sensors
Development Flow for BCP or DRP
Risk Analysis, BIA, build the plan, test & validate, modify & update the plan, approve & implement the plan
Diffie-Hellman
key exchange algorithm, does not provide confidentiality
Diffusion (in algorithms)
Changes made to the plaintext affect many pieces of the ciphertext, not just one part. Has to do with transposition.
Dilution
Brand becomes recognized as the underlying product itself (Kleenex for example)
Direct Addressing (Absolute Addressing)
System knows the exact location of the data in memory and directly specifies the address
Direct Evidence
Oral Testimony by witness
Disk duplexing
duplicate disk controllers, if one fails, other takes over
DML
data manipulation language, examines/manipulates contents of a database
Documentary Evidence
Printed business records, manuals and printouts
Double DES (2DES)
is vulnerable to meet-in-the-middle attacks
The DRP involves the following steps:
Recovery of the Data center, biz operations, biz location & biz
Dry Pipe Fire Suppression System
water held back from head by a valve, when room temp hits 165F the valve opens
DSSS
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
Due Care aka Duty of Care
minimum and customary practice of responsible protection of assets
Due Diligence
The prudent management and execution of due care
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Refreshed constantly, cheap, slow, very common
EAP
Extensible Authentication Protocol
ECB
Electronic Code Book, Native mode of DES, block cipher, same key for each static 64 bit block, vulnerable to brute force attacks
ECC
Elliptic Curve Cryptography
Electrical Blackout
loss of all power
Electrical Brownout
prolonged low voltage
Electrical Fault
momentary power loss
Electrical Sag
momentary low voltage
Electrical spike
momentary high voltage
Electrical Surge
prolonged high voltage
Electrical Transient
short duration noise interference
Electronic vaulting
xmits data through network to storage on a remote server, usually nightly
Enigma
poly-alphabetic substitution cipher machine, went from 3 to 6 rotors, used by germans in wwII
Escrowed Encryption
Central authority retains copies of all keys so governments could decrypt any message they want
ESP
Encapsulating security payload, used in IPSec for encryption and limited authentication
Expert AI System
Inference engine & knowledge based, exhibits reasoning similar to a human expert
Exploit
the use of a specific attack against a specific identified vulnerability of the target
FDDI
Fiber Distributed Data Interface
Fence Height 3-4ft / 1 meter
deters casual trespasser
Fence Height 6-7ft / 2 meters
too high to easily climb
Fence Height 8 ft / 2.4 meters & 3 strands of barbed wire
deters determined intruders
FHSS
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
Fire Class A
common combustibles (wood, laminates) (water, soda acid) (2nd most common)
Fire Class B
Liquid (petroleum, coolants) (Gas, co2, soda acid)
Fire Class C
Electrical (equipment, wires) (gas, co2)
Fire Class D
Metals (dry powder)
Fire Class K
Kitchen (grease) (most common type of fire)
Flame Detectors
sense pulsation of the flame, or sense the IR energy of the flame
Four types of DSL
Asymmetric (ADSL), Single-Line (SDSL), High-rate (HDSL), Very-high-data-rate (VDSL)
Gas Discharge Fire Suppression System
discharges an inert gas such as co2 or halon, usually installed under floor
Graham-Denning
security model, rights are assigned to subjects and/or objects
Harrison-Ruzzo-Ullman
security model, extended version of Graham-denning, adds granular controls
Hash Functions (Types)
HMAC, MD2, MD4, MD5, RIPEMD-160, SHA, Diffie-Hellman
Hash / Message Digest
one-way transformation, used for integrity/authentication, no key encryption
HDLC
High-Level Data Link Control
Heat Sensors
detect the temperature in the room, detect the rate of change of temperature in the room
Hebern Machines
any system based on a rotor mechanism (battista, jefferson, sigaba, japanese red & purple)
Hex
1-9, A-F
High Coupling
object is reliant on interacting with multiple other objects to perform a task
How does Data Encapsulation Work
Each protocol or service at each layer in the OSI model adds its own info to the data as it is passed down the protocol stack
Hubs
Layer 1
IDEA
international data encryption algorithm, 128 bit key, 64 bit plaintext blocks, came after DES but before AES
IDS Methods of Operation
Signature Based (Pattern Matching), Anomaly Detection, RFC Protocol Behavior
IDS Modes of Operation
Passive (alerts), Active (IPS)
Incident Handling in 6 Steps
PICERL (Preparation, Identification, Containment, Eradication, Recovery, Lessons Learned)
Indexed Addressing
System addresses memory by using an index register
Indirect Addressing
System addresses the desired location of the program in memory
Initialization Vector (I.V.)
used in stream ciphers, determined by key, adds randomness
Integrity
Alteration
Interpreter
translates program commands one at a time
IPSec
standard that provides encryption, access control, non-repudiation, and authentication of msgs over IP. works with IPv6. Uses AH and ESP protocols
IPSec
provides encryption, authentication, protects the header
ISC2 CISSP Code of Ethics Line 1
Protect society, the commonwealth, and the infrastructure
ISC2 CISSP Code of Ethics Line 2
Act honorably, honestly, justly, responsibly, and legally.
ISC2 CISSP Code of Ethics Line 3
Provide diligent and competent service to principals
ISC2 CISSP Code of Ethics Line 4
Advance and protect the profession.
ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network
ISO 17799
Originally BS 7799, another alternative to CC, risk based approach, 3rd party attestation
ISO 27000
replaced ISO 17799
ITSEC
European attempt to establish a common standard for evaluation of computer security, more functionality based
ITSEC E0
Inadequate Assurance
ITSEC E1
General Description
ITSEC E2
Configuration and process control
ITSEC E3
Source code analysis
ITSEC E4
Formal model of security policy
ITSEC E5
Vulnerability analysis
ITSEC E6
Formal specifications
ITSEC F1-F5
Mirror functionality of orange book
ITSEC F6
High integrity requirements, databases
ITSEC F7
High availability
ITSEC F8
High integrity for communication
ITSEC F9
High Confidentiality
ITSEC F10
High confidentiality & integrity for data networks
Jefferson Disks
36 rotating disks, code is the alphabetic characters under the alignment bar
Kerberos
SSO, uses DES/T-DES, developed by MIT, secret-key protocol and distributed service for 3rd parth authentication
Lattice
every subject and object has a security designation label, subjects can only access objects with a label up to their own security designation
Lighting
should be installed at least every 8ft/2.4m high and with illumination of 2ft candles (illumination area)
List-Based Access Control
associates a list of users and their priviliges with EACH object, object has default privileges that apply to unlisted users, form of DAC
Loose / Low Cohesion
object is reliant on interacting with multiple other objects to perform a task
Low Coupling
mostly self-contained object that does not need to rely on other objects to perform a task
Main Memory
RAM
Maximum Allowable/Tolerable Downtime (MAD/MTD)
Total time a system can be inoperable before an organization is severely impacted
Meeting-Point Leader
first one to meeting point, accounts for all employees
Memory Protection
protected part of the memory, Program A cannot access area being accessed and written to by Program B
Motion Detection systems
physical intruder detection. Three types: sonic (audible sound waves), ultrasonic (high-freq sound waves), microwave (radio waves)
Multicast
1 to many (selected addresses)
Multiprocessing
executes multiple programs at the same time on multiple processors
Multiprogramming
interweaves execution of more than one program
Multitasking
executes multiple tasks at the same time on one CPU
Multithreading
allows more than one user to utilize the system at the same time
NAT
Network Address Translation
NBAD
Network Behavior Anomaly Detection
Network Layer
IP layer, packet routing, error detection, manages node traffic
Neural AI System
analog of the biological neuron system, undergoes training period where weights are adjusted according to the learning results
OFB
Output feedback mode, stream cipher that generates the ciphertext key by xoring the plaintext with a key stream. Initialization vector (I.V.) is required
One-Time Pad
unbreakable if pad is not reused, key same length as message, and truly random. foundation for stream ciphers
OPSEC Assessment Cycle Step 1
Identify critical information
OPSEC Assessment Cycle Step 2
Assess threats and threat sources
OPSEC Assessment Cycle Step 3
Assess vulnerabilities
OPSEC Assessment Cycle Step 4
Conduct risk vs. benefit analysis
OPSEC Assessment Cycle Step 5
Implement countermeasures (& repeat)
OSI Model
Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away (Physical, Data, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, Application)
Packet Filtering Firewalls
First Gen, Fast but not very secure, has no memory of previous traffic, Use ACLs
Page Fault
a request that results in paging
Paging
occurs when the OS copies from virtual memory to main memory
Patent
grants the right to limit others from making, selling, using, selling, or importing your invention
Permutation aka Transposition
shuffles letters in a word or sentence (opposed to substituting them as in substitution). CAB = ACB.
Photometric systems
physical intruder detection, passive system that detects a change in the light level of an area b/c of added light sources (shadows from movement)
Physical Layer
converts bits into electronic signals and or light impulses for transmission across the network
Pipelining
CPU term, combines the steps of different instructions
Polyalphabetic Cipher
invented by frenchman De Vigenhre, multiple substitution cipher with repeats
Polyinstantiation
Two versions of the same object (same primary key) in a DB, such as S and TS, challenge is maintaining integrity
Polymorphism
Object that is able to respond to a common set of operations in a differnt manner, like using + for addition of reals & intergers
Pre-action Fire Suppression System
Hybrid of wet & dry, both valve and sprinkler head have to be activated
Presentation Layer
Presents data to app layer, provides translation services, encyrption and compression performed here
The primary goal of the BIA is
to determine MAD for any given system
Primary Storage Memory Unit
part of the CPU, stores instructions and daqta for current programs in use
Processes are placed in a ring structure according to
least privilege
Proximity Detection Systems
physical intruder detection, uses an electronic field that senses the presence of an object or individual
Proxy Firewall
Processes packets at all 7 layers, creates 2 tcp connections for each request, hides OS & network info (uses proxy info)
Punitive damages
Set by jury to punish offender
RAID Type 0
Striping
RAID Type 1
Mirroring
RAID Type 2
Code Parity, Hamming Code, 39 disks
RAID Type 3
Byte-level parity, dedicated parity drive
RAID Type 4
Bit-level parity, dedicated parity drive
RAID Type 5
Striped Parity aka Interleave Parity
RAID Type 6
Second independent parity
RAID Type 7
Multiple Disk Failure
RC5
Family of cryptographic algorithms invented by Rivest. Block cipher variable length, block sizes 32, 64 or 128, key sizes 0-2048, patented by RSA
RDBMS
relational database management systems
Real Evidence
Tangible objects/physical evidence
Real (Primary) Memory
directly accessable by the CPU. used for storage of instructions & data associated with the program being executed. High speed RAM
Recovery Point Objective (RPO)
The amount of data loss or system inaccesability (measured in time) that an organization can withstand
Recovery Time Objective (RTO)
The maximum time allowed to recover business or IT systems
Reduced-Instruction-Set-Computer (RISC)
Simpler instructions using fewer cycle, boots performance
Register Direct Addressing
System does not refer to main memory, instead refers to specific registers in the CPU that already contain the required data
Register Indirect Addressing
System addresses the register for the data's address in main memory
Registers
The CPU contains tiny memory areas known as registers. They are temporary storage for the task the CPU works on at that instant. To operate on values from main memory, the values must first be loaded into a register.
Regulatory Law
HIPPA is an example
Remote Journaling
xmits data in (near) real-time to a backup storage at a remote location
Repeaters
Layer 1
RFC1918
defines private IP addressing
Right of first re-sale
If you buy copyrighted material, you have the right to sell it once
Ring 0
Kernel
Ring 1
O/S components that are not part of the kernel
Ring 2
I/O drivers and utilities
Ring 3
Applications and programs
Risk {due to a vulnerability} equals
Threat x Vulnerability {to that threat}
Rounds
rounds of S-Boxes. the Algorithm determines rounds. example: DES has 16 rounds, so that means each block goes through 16 different S Boxes for encryption.
Routers
Layer 3
routing protocols, goal is to lower
convergence time
Rule Set-Based Access Control
based on rules for subjects operating on objects, RSBAC is implemented in linux, form of DAC
SAFER
Secure And Fast Encryption Routine. Works in 64 and 128 bit. Variant used in encrypted bluetooth. (Aka SAFER +)
Safety
always trumps security
Safety Warden
last one out
S Boxes
substitution boxes, used in block ciphers. Key determines which S-boxes are used & how.
Scalar Processor
executes one instruction at a time
SDLC
Synchronous Data Link Control
Secondary Memory
magnetic disks, non-volatile storage
Security Techniques for Trade Secrets
access control to physical/electronic copies, secure storage, copy limitations, document logging
Sequential Memory
Tape
Servicemark
Trademarks for services
Sesame addresses what kerberos weakness?
Plaintext storage of symmetric keys
Session Layer
establishes and maintains connections between systems
Skipjack
Secret key algorithm in clipper chip hardware
Smoke Detectors
detection occurs from the smoke interfering with a light beam being xmitted to an optical sensor, or by a change in the ionization current generated by a minute radioactive source
Software Capability Maturity Model (CMM)
has 5 levels, Initial, Repeatable, Defined, Managed, Optimizing (IRDMO)
Spartan Scytale (sih-ta-lee)
message written on ribbon wrapped around a stick of a defined diameter
Stateful Inspection Firewalls
keeps a state table of all traffic, uses table to make decisions, more secure, slower, Layer 7
Static RAM (SRAM)
used as cache memory, doesn't need to be refreshed as much as DRAM, very fast, small area, expensive
Statuatory damages
Established by law
Stream cipher
uses XOR, encrypts one bit at a time, algorithm & I.V. creates a key stream (1s and 0s) and those bits are XOR'd to the bits of the message that is created
Strong algorithms contain
Confusion and Diffusion
Strong * property
Option within bell-lapadula, means subject cannot read or write up OR down, but is stuck within their own security designation
Superscalar Processor
enables concurrent execution of multiple instructions
Suppressive Fire Controls
Sprinklers (chemical, H20), Fire extinguishers (ABC, Halon)
Switches
Layer 2 or 3
Symmetric
only provides confidentiality, does not provide authenticity or non-repudiation. Tough to scale, and key must be distributed out-of-band. Mathematics are easier therefore encryption is quite fast
Symmetrical Multiprocessing Systems (SMP)
support more than one processor. System tasks and application tasks are divided equally between both CPUs
Symmetric Encryption
secret key, pre-shared key, shared secret. Faster. Secret or one-way key. Algorithms use transposition and/or substitution
Symmetric Encryption Types
DES, Triple-DES, RC4, RC6, IDEA, AES, Blowfish
Target of Evaluation TOE
IT product or system and its associated administrator and user guideance documentation that is the subject of an evaluation
TCSEC
Trusted Computer Security Evaluation Criteria (Orange Book, Part of the rainbow series)
TCSEC A
Verified Protected (MAC, C&A)
TCSEC B
Mandatory Protected (MAC)
TCSEC C
Discretionary Protected (DAC)
TCSEC D
Minimal Security
Threat
any circumstance or event with the potential to adversely impact an IS through unauthorized access, destruction, disclosure, modification of data, and/or denial of service
Three types of Firewalls
Packet Filtering, Stateful Inspection, Proxy (Application or Circuit level)
Three types of monitoring techniques
Real time, adhoc, passive
Three types of NAT
One-to-one, Pool, Many to one
Tight / High Cohesion
mostly self-contained object that does not need to rely on other objects to perform a task
TOE
Target of Evaluation
Trademark
A work, name, symbol, device used in trade with goods to distiguish your brand
Trade Secret
Protects critical intellectual property that is not publicly available. (Formulas, source code, recipes)
Trade Secret Obligations
Overt measures/due care must be taken to keep the secret. Non-disclosure agreements are usually in use
Transport Layer
Interacts with your information and prepares it for transport, TCP/UDP
Triple DES (3DES, 3TDES)
Encrypts a message with three iterations of DES, can be done a few ways. message can be encrypted with key 1, decrypted with key 2 and encrypted again with key 1
Twofish
adaptive version of blowfish, competed for AES standard
Two types of asymmetric algorithms
Factoring (large prime #s) and Discrete Logarithm
Types of DR Tests
Checklist, Structured Walk-through (aka validation testing/tabletop exercise), Simulation, Active Simulation, Full Interruption
Unicast
1 to 1
Unix ROT 13
shifts alphabet 13 places. mono-alphabetic, substitution, symmetric
Vernam Cipher
one-time pad system
Vulnerability
Weakness in an IS, system security procedures, internal controls, or implementation that could be exploited
Wassenaar Arrangement
1995 follow-up to COCOM, 28 countries, symmetric crypto free for export, other crypto export requires a license
Ways to encrypt data
1. Break data into blocks and encrypt each block 2. Encrypt entire stream on bit-by-bit basis
Wet Pipe Fire Suppression System
sprinkler head always filled with water, when room temp hits 165F it melts the head
What are the two types of NIPS
active response and inline
What is the most important part of protecting a crypto system?
Protecting the secret key for symmetric and the private key for public key
What system is commonly refered to as rotor systems?
Hebern machines
Work function/factor
Difficulty in recovering the plaintext from ciphertext (as measured by cost/time)
XOR (Exclusive OR)
boolean operation, performs binary addition without carry, implemented in hardware, symmetric
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